C H A P T E R
1
What can reflective
practice mean for
you . . . and why should
you engage in it?
DebraMcGregor
Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not
to stop questioning.
Albert Einstein
There can be few better ways of elevating your life than by thinking about, and
reflecting upon, how your development as a teacher will improve the education of
the children and young people whose lives you will touch. Reflectively pondering
and questioning what you do can improve your achievements in life. This chapter
focuses on describing why you should reflect as a developing teacher and how
you can reflectively consider and question different aspects of your teaching to
develop into a confident and competent educator.
Reflection often begins when you pause to ‘think back’ after something unexpected
or out of the ordinary has happened. You re-play the happenings, incident
or event in your head, and, in thinking about it more, it begins to change from
a sequence of chronological events into a series of questioning thoughts such as
‘What happened?’, ‘When?’ and ‘How?’ These initial thoughts can be purposeless
and just idle musings. They become more purposeful and constructive when
thinking is directed to consider questions such as: ‘Why did it happen that way?’
and ‘How could I have behaved or done things differently?’ Questions such as:
‘Would action x have been better than action y at the beginning of the lesson?’
or ‘How could I have responded differently to the disruptive boy at the end of the
lesson?’ lead to thoughts about how to improve specific situations. Reflecting determindly
to improve something requires effort and sustained, focused thinking
centred on a particular issue or concern you might have about your development
as a teacher.
2 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Providing clear instructions or explaining ideas to others may be a talent you
already possess. It may also come naturally to you to be gently supportive and
encouraging of your learners. You may already have a talent for steering a learner
to achieve new understanding or develop a previously unmastered skill. However,
if you are to become a consistently effective teacher, developing engaging lessons
on a daily basis and commanding the attention of all around you, you will need
to develop a clear understanding about what you do that works well. You also
need to appreciate that some things you might consider doing are unlikely to
be successful, or deter you from making good professional progress. Thoughtful
reflection can help you to recognize more swiftly what is effective practice and
what are the key characteristics of a successful teacher.
When starting out on a teaching experience or practice, you may feel that there
are some skills you already have, but recognize that others need development.
You may, for example, need to think about how to address a group, or how far to
go in your explanation of fractions, or even what to say to learners to help them
see how they are progressing. Your academic and professional learning around
issues such as these will be aided by your previous experiences, a rapid review of
learners’ progress during the lesson and focused contemplation after episodes of
teaching. The following quotation indicates how a beginning teacher realizes, like
many others:
“ It will be . . . difficult in the classroom to take control and deal with behavioural
problems but hopefully I will learn from any mistakes I may make
in the first instances and also learn from other qualified teachers as to how
best to control bad behaviour.
(Patricia, one-year PGCE student, at beginning of course) ” Behaviour management is almost always a concern for the beginning teacher.
Others include:
knowing how to talk at an appropriate level in class;
ensuring that lessons are both successful and enjoyable;
adhering to government and accreditation expectations;
being liked by learners!
To succeed in all these aspects as well as many others (for example, formative
assessment, marking books, creating succinct plenaries) requires careful reflection
about the process, delivery and development of your teaching. To teach
successfully, with learners who appear to be increasingly challenging, requires
the nurturing, adaptation and refinement of a range of academic understandings
and a plethora of more practical professional skills.
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 3
This extract from Martyn’s reflections early in his teaching practice indicates
how there are many things to reflect upon when learning how to teach:
“ One worry I had was that they wouldn’t know the answers to my questions
and I would be stood at the front in a silent room! However, they were very
responsive and it made the experience much more enjoyable . . . . . after
the lesson . . . . my mentor pointed out that I was not to lower my voice
when speaking to an individual as it prevents the rest of the class from
hearing the answer. I also sometimes felt myself stumbling when talking
to the whole class . . . . . . so I need to be clearer in my explanations. The
second starter [beginning lesson activity] was with the same group later
on in the day and I felt much more confident about delivering it after their
earlier response. The pupils once again responded well, enjoyed it and they
even applauded me once I had finished! I was so engrossed in ensuring
my presentation was correctly set up that I forgot to stand at the front of
the classroom. I feel I would have gained more authority if I had done this
from the start of the lesson. The pupils became quite excitable and started
shouting out the answers during the activity and although I asked them to
put up their hands, some continued to shout their suggestions. From this
experience, I know that I need to use management strategies to control the
class, for example, not responding positively to those who were shouting
out.
(Martyn, one-year maths PGCE, early in the course) ” Martyn’s reflections indicate that he has a lot to think about, all at once! It is of
course not possible to master all teaching skills at the same time, and knowing
exactly what to focus on can be tricky. This chapter introduces different views
of reflection that are important for beginning teachers and helps you to consider
what the focus of reflection might be, and how reflection at different points can
be useful. At its simplest, reflection is consciously ‘looking back’ at your actions
and being able to make some kind of evaluation of whether your teaching was
successful or not. More complex, analytical and critical reflection is that which not
only recognizes what you have done, but also how a particular course of action
(or series of actions) shaped outcomes for your learners.Most beginning teachers,
like Martyn above, are able to describe what has happened in their classroom.
What they find much more challenging is a level of critical reflection that enables
them to identify and explain:
what contributed to effective learning;
what was detrimental to effective learning;
what they could do to improve learning.
4 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Many trainees find thinking about how to improve their practice quite a trial,
because, in their early observations it is not easy to recognize what effective
teachers do to control their class and make learning an engaging and enjoyable
experience. It is a little like watching someone drive when you are first learning;
should you observe the gear change, the clutch control or the brake pedal
movement? It all looks easy, but when you try to do it there is so much to think
about all at once. So it is with teaching; teasing out what is essential is not always
obvious.
The nature of the reflective teacher
Most views of reflection emanate from the work of American philosopher, John
Dewey (1910), who is often credited with being the originator of reflective practice.
Being reflective requires active consideration about actions and their consequences.
As a beginning teacher you might think that you must punish children
who talk when you are giving out instructions. However, if you do not
contemplate the implications of keeping the whole class in over a break because
the interruption involved only one loud student, you will not learn from
your experience quickly. Dewey (1910) recognized that the ‘thinking teacher’ requires
three important attributes to be reflective; ‘open-mindedness’ to new ideas
and thoughts; ‘wholeheartedness’ to seek out fresh approaches and fully engage
with them; and ‘responsibility’ to be aware of the consequences of one’s own
actions. So, in his view, reflections to help develop these characteristics are essential
to becoming a successful teacher. Patrick demonstrates the first of these
characteristics:
“ By keeping an open mind on a given situation, I allow myself to view a
problem from more than one angle . . . . . . I am prepared to try out new
ideas if I believe them to be valid and am more than willing to accept
feedback on the impact my approach has on an audience whether it be
good or bad.
(Patrick, one-year PGCE student, at beginning of course) ” Beginning teachers often show a desire to be ‘open minded’ and are full of
enthusiasm to try out new ideas. However early in their training they need to be
open to suggestions about how to master the basics of teaching. From there they
can move on to develop successful new approaches. This requires researching
new materials or resources, discussing ideas with more experienced professionals
and watching other expert teachers in action, observing what they do that is
successful.
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 5
The ‘thinking teacher’ requires
three important attributes to
be reflective:
‘open-mindedness’ to new
ideas and thoughts, ‘whole
heartedness’ and
‘responsibility’.
How can you ensure that activities are exciting,
or that your freshly adapted resources are a triumph?
This requires thinking beforehand about how best to
organize their use and, afterwards, about how well
they worked from both your learners’ and your own
point of view. This is Dewey’s ‘whole-heartedness’.
To be a thinking teacher requires wholehearted
immersion in the business of education. You will be
constantly seeking out techniques and materials that will appeal to your learners,
and thinking about tasks that will engage and motivate them. This exemplifies
an attentive and conscientious approach to preparing to educate. The third of
Dewey’s characteristics, responsibility, demands reflection on experience. Clara,
below, is taking responsibility for what happened in her classroom:
“ In the third week of my placement I felt confident enough to lead the
whole class in a starter activity I had designed and constructed. I gave out
instructions to the class and they started the activity. I was feeling very
nervous about the opinion of my mentor. Whilst I was not being formally
observed, I felt it important to set a good impression as he was the head
of department. After about two minutes I realized that both halves of the
class had been given the same set of equipment, and they should have
been comparing each others’ findings! How naive of me not to check the
equipment before giving it to the pupils! Luckily, the activity still worked
well and even more luckily, the head of department had not realized there
was ever a problem. I will now be triple checking everything before it goes
into the pupils’ hands!
(Clara, one-year science PGCE student, three weeks into first teaching
placement) ”
Why reflect?
Extending Dewey’s view of the thoughtful teacher is about considering the consequences
of one’s actions. Reflection is an important tool in helping you to do this,
as it enables you to take a critical look back at what you did. Dewey identified two
categories of teacher behaviour:
routine action
reflective action
To the untrained eye, schools can look as if they run like clockwork. This is not
chance, but based on the accumulative effect of routine actions, for example, the
way learners respond to the teacher during registration when their names are
6 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
called out, the way they are expected to line up outside a classroom door, or to
respond to question/answer sessions in class. As a beginning teacher you need to
‘fit in’ with existing routines and develop some of your own, such as the fixed stare
indicating ‘watch what you are doing!’ or standing at the front of the class with
arms folded conveying ‘I am waiting for silence’ or exaggerating starting a timer
indicates ‘I am now timing to see how long it takes you to be quiet and will waste
that much of your time at the end of the lesson’. You may well pick these up from
observing experienced teachers and reflecting on the triumphant consequences of
their actions and consciously plan to adopt their routines. Like driving a car, once
these routines are established, they require little conscious thought. Dewey (1910)
contrasts these kinds of ‘routine action’ (doing what is guided by factors such as
tradition, habit, authority and institutional expectations) with ‘reflective action’
(doing made up of changed actions informed by self-appraisal). As a beginning
teacher you cannot take routine action for granted.
Professional artistry is the
application of ‘intelligent
action’, experimenting in the
way you respond to situations
through ‘reflection-in-action’
and ‘reflection-on-action’.
Even apparently simple tasks can go wrong unless
you think through what they mean and why they exist.
For you, ‘routine action’ will develop only from ‘reflective
action’ as you seek constantly to improve ways of
working.
Developing Dewey’s ideas further, Sch¨on (1983,
1987) highlights how professionals often face situations
that are unique, but apply their knowledge and previous experiences to
inform how they act. He defines this active, somewhat experimental process as
professional artistry. He suggests that practitioners who respond or act in such a
professional, competent way in uncertain situations are ‘knowing-in-action’ (1987:
25) and can reveal different sorts of knowledge that emerge through their ‘intelligent
action’ (1987: 25). In your teaching practice, for example, you might have
given the learners a writing task, but while you are setting up the technology to
use a video clip to stimulate discussion, you notice the increase in quiet whispering.
You know that if the noise reaches a certain level the discussion will not
go well. To maintain quiet control of the group you could do with extending
the task or re-engaging the quick learners in a subsequent activity. Anticipating
this need, being prepared for it and responding to it is great teaching artistry.
Another time, towards the end of the lesson, the tasks have been completed and
there are still 10 minutes before the bell. Professional artistry would facilitate
the engagement of the learners to reflect on the lesson, summarize what they
have learned; you as the teacher pull it all together, connect the outcomes to the
learning objectives and success criteria, and still have them thinking about what
they have learned as they leave the room. So where does this ‘professional artistry’
come from?
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 7
Dewey suggested that professionals might experiment in the way they respond
to situations by using both ‘reflection-in-action’ and ‘reflection-on-action’. The
former involves thinking about action while actually doing it, and may result in
change during the teaching process. Sch¨on (1983) argues that this could be a
form of action research (discussed further in Chapter 14), changing or adapting
your practice to deal with a particular demand or situation. He indicates that this
kind of practice is freed from established theory and able to inform the personal
theory that you might construct from your experience. As a beginning teacher
you will think about what you are doing during the lesson, and think back to what
happened after the lesson. However you will also benefit from contemplating
what could happen in lessons and how you will prepare for learning before
delivering a lesson. This we could call reflection-before-action. Pollard (2008)
sees reflection that informs the development of teaching as a cyclical process that
should be scaffolded by various frameworks (discussed in Chapter 9) andmediated
through collaboration and discussion with colleagues. He extends these ideas by
emphasizing the rigorous nature of reflective teaching, moving beyond ‘common
sense’ to gather evidence, research literature and obtain critiques from colleagues.
The monitoring, evaluating and revising of one’s own practice should therefore
arise through evidence-based enquiry, a premise that informs the structure of
many trainee development programmes. Seven key characteristics of reflective
practice (adapted from Pollard 2008: 14) include:
1 having an active focus on the aims and consequences of your teaching;
2 taking a cyclical approach to regularly monitoring, evaluating and revisiting
your practice;
3 using evidence to make judgments about success and how to
progress;
4 retaining open-mindedness, responsibility and wholeheartedness;
5 basing developing pedagogy on insights from research as well as judgments
from evaluating own practice;
6 engaging with colleagues through collaboration and dialogue to improve
professional learning and personal fulfillment;
7 redeveloping practice by creatively integrating external frameworks and
models of practice.
The aim of reflective practice is thus to support a shift from routine actions
rooted in commonsense thinking to reflective action emerging from professional
thinking (Pollard 2008: 26) drawing from external evidence-based sources. All
seven key points are addressed throughout the chapters in this book.
8 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Reflective task 1.1
A number of different views have been briefly outlined above. Think about any recent
experience you have had teaching or instructing someone to do something new (helping
them to learn a new sporting skill or using a different technique on a computer):
1 Did you think through how to help before doing anything, or pause mid-action,
or mull over later how you were explaining, demonstrating or encouraging the
learner?
2 Could you align this contemplation to reflection-before-action; reflection-inaction;
reflection-on-action?
3 If you were to do this again would you do it the same or differently next time?
How? Why?
What should you be reflective about?
There are many different things to consider and think about when you are developing
as a teacher. Figure 1.1 suggests how many different facets of a teacher’s
work can shape and influence their development. This model (developed from
Shulman’s 1987 and 1998 work and Higgins and Leat 2001) indicates the various
dimensions that beginning teachers should pay attention to. It could be very useful
to consider each of these features as part of the toolkit that arms you with helpful
tactics, strategies, frameworks and general guidance about what to pay attention
to on your reflective journey to becoming an effective teacher. You could view
them as key components of the legend on the road map to becoming a qualified
teacher.
Reflecting on subject knowledge
This is a key prerequisite for teaching. You need to know and understand the
subject content that you are going to teach. If you do not ‘know your stuff’ you
will not have a clear idea about what your students should learn. Before teaching
any lesson, it is important that you understand the substantive or important
subject knowledge in your area of curriculum. You need to know the content as
well as how it is constructed. For example, in science there are three main subject
areas: biology, chemistry and physics, but there is also an underpinning view that
‘how science works’ (the nature and historical development in science) should be
nurtured through the three different disciplines. In MFL you need to be able to
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 9
‘Subject’ knowledge
Substantive subject knowledge
understanding key facts and concepts of the
subject; appreciating the nature of the subject:
‘knowing what’
Syntactic subject knowledge
understanding the way subject matter is
structured and developed: ‘knowing how’
‘Curriculum’ knowledge
Key skills associated with subject matter
understanding how and when literacy, numeracy,
thinking skills, collaboration, creativity, criticality
and problem solving approaches are appropriate
Additional Curricular frameworks influence
Knowing where the learning is situated within the
national curriculum, accreditation specifications
and schemes of work
‘Pedagogic’ knowledge
Practical knowledge
based on experience, appreciating how to
manage the classroom, question, apply
assessment techniques, etc.
Beliefs about teaching
intuitive, experiential, cultural influences
on viewpoints
Knowledge of learners
appreciating influences of child development,
emotions, skill needs, diagnosed difficulties, etc.
Acknowledgement of educational values
Knowledge of learning settings
knowing how and what the organization values;
what traditions, cultures, routines, etc. are prized
Knowledge of values
appreciating morals, religious practices,
comprehending behavioural expectations,
quality learning, etc.
Personal constructs
and identity
knowing yourself,
understanding own
capabilities, knowing
what kind of image
you wish to convey
to others
Pedagogic enactment in the
classroom
Figure 1.1 Simple schematic adaptation of Shulman’s model of teacher development
Source: Shulman 1987, 1998; Higgins and Leat 2001; McGregor 2007
understand, and communicate accurately in, the target language, but you must
also understand how the language works (what the grammatical patterns are) in
order to prepare your pupils to become independent learners.
Thus subject knowledge is about knowing the key facts and appreciating and
understanding how they are connected together; this could be summarized as
‘knowing what’. As a developing educator you should also recognize how the
subject matter should be organized, for example if you are a PE teacher you will
recognize that you cannot teach children how to play rugby or netball if they have
not yet learned the basic skills of passing the ball. There is a need to pay attention
to, and develop competency in, one area before progressing to the next. This is
an example of syntactic subject knowledge, understanding the way that subject
matter can be organized and developed. This could be referred to as ‘knowing
how’. Before you begin teaching it is important that you reflect on the extent to
which your understanding of ‘knowing what’ and ‘knowing how’ is appropriate.
Most teacher preparation courses provide a knowledge and skills audit, so that
would-be trainees can reflect on ‘what do I know currently?’ and ‘what do I need
to know before I start?’
10 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Curriculum knowledge
As well as acquiring subject knowledge, learners also develop other skills and understanding
related to the subject. It is important for you to see how, for example,
literacy, numeracy, thinking skills, collaborative skills, creativity, criticality and
problem-solving approaches fit into subject teaching. Skills and knowledge are
integral to any subject area. In history, for example, students might be required
to analyse key factors influencing the development of World War Two; or they
might need to synthesize arguments about the contrasting nature of Buddhism
and Judaism in religious education (RE). In art they may need to generate alternative
presentations of a slogan, or abstract interpretations of an object. Such
skills are not confined to older learners; in mathematics even young children
learn to develop different ways of solving a problem, or in English they might
need to report the same event from two contrasting viewpoints. It is important
to recognize how skills may be key to the learning of substantive or syntactic
subject knowledge. This could be thought of as ‘knowing-what-else’. Curriculum
knowledge is also about knowing how and where the subject fits in to the whole
curriculum and how it is assessed and accredited at different stages of education.
Pedagogic knowledge
Pedagogic knowledge, or knowing how to teach, is multi-faceted:
Practical teaching knowledge is used to ensure effective learning through the
application of practical strategies that include classroom and behaviour management,
organization, questioning techniques and formative assessment
techniques.
Beliefs about teaching (intuitive and experiential understandings of what
works) may also influence your thinking and practice. Perhaps you think
that mixed ability is good when a lesson is focused on skill development,
such as team building in PE, and setting is appropriate to have all students
learning together in a high ability MFL class.
Understanding of learners and their unique capabilities (appreciating influences
of child development, emotions, skill needs, diagnosed difficulties,
talents or gifts) may influence how you design the learning tasks or organize
the classroom.
This could be viewed as ‘knowing what works’.
Acknowledgement of educational values
Influence of learning settings can shape theway you teach. The school culture
that includes the routines, practices and performances that have become an
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 11
automatic and accepted way of working might constrain or develop your
practice. Sixty-minute lessons, or regular field trips, or fixed commentary
boxes on reports, or the ICT network support can shape how you perform as
a professional.
Acknowledgement of an individual’s values (individual standards, morals,
religious practices, home cultures) can influence how and what things happen.
A headteacher’s view of handwriting or wall displays, or the fact that
you are working in a religious school, can influence what you say and how
you conduct your lessons.
These could be described as ‘knowing what else matters’.
Personal constructs and identity
It is important for you to understand that how you view yourself as a teacher
(and a person) will have a bearing on the way you perform in the classroom. How
you communicate with others (authoritatively or submissively, enthusiastically
or very matter-of-fact) can convey your beliefs and how you think you should
or could act in any professional situation. Equally you need to be aware of how
you wish to be portrayed to your learners, colleagues and peers. This is discussed
much further in Chapters 3 and 5 in particular.
Pedagogic enactment
This is about how you teach. The level of confidence that you have when you first
enact your role as a teacher will be greatly influenced by:
how well you are mentally prepared;
how carefully you have thought about what you will have the students do
and what you will say;
how you will question your learners.
Your performance or enactment as a teacher will express your understandings
(about your subject, its nature and sequence) and beliefs (about how your students
learn) and the influences of the institution (daily routines, weekly practices and
integral values). All these factors (and more) will impact on you as a teacher
and how you present yourself. As you develop professionally and you recognize
something is not working too well, you may find it useful to take each of the
aspects described above and reflect on them in turn, identifying where you need
to focus further to facilitate your development.
With the different facets of becoming a teacher in mind (Shulman’s model,
Figure 1.1) read Case Studies 1.1 to 1.3 and consider the questions that follow.
12 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Case Study 1.1 Clive the mathematician
Clive is a quietly competent mathematician teaching a group of Year 9 students. In
attempting to teach about angles and how to measure them, he had produced some
brilliant animations (on an interactive whiteboard) of swirling right-angled objects,
and engaging activities where the students measured the angles of objects around the
classroom. His demeanour, however, was somewhat timid and he allowed the students
to choose where they sat and who they (loudly) conversed with. He asked probing
questions and his presentation of ideas about how angles could be measured and
calculated was crystal clear. This trainee illustrated strengths in his understanding of
mathematics as a subject and could communicate to willing listeners how to describe
and measure different kinds of angles. The tasks he designed for his learners were
engaging, differentiated and challenging to the more able. Yet the behaviour of his
classes could erode his confidence and perhaps even deter him from pursuing teaching.
His reflection needed to be carefully directed so that he could identify where his
strengths lay and where he needed to focus the next steps in development.
Reflective task 1.2
1 What do you think are Clive’s strengths and weaknesses?
2 What aspect of his development would you encourage him to reflect upon next?
Case Study 1.2 Mimi the scientist
Mimi is a highly qualified scientist who has previously worked in industry. She was
teaching secondary students about diet. She was knowledgeable about the key aspects
of a healthy diet and the essential contribution of vitamins and minerals to food we
eat. She had devised an interesting practical activity involving testing foods for the
nutrients they contained. She organized ‘testing’ stations around the laboratory so that
the different groups would work at various, well spaced, points around the perimeter of
the classroom. The apparatus was neatly laid out for collection by a representative from
each group to avoid collisions in the haste to grab equipment and do some science.
She provided a carefully explained set of instructions, demonstrated techniques and
requested ‘hands up’ to check all understood the method to be used. Some students did
not appear to understand exactly what to do so she also directed reflective questions at
those who appeared not to be paying careful attention with a request to ‘repeat what
you have to do in the experiment’. She had a pre-prepared worksheet upon which the
students could quickly record their results and draw their conclusions. Despite all these
props for the practical, the lesson was not successful.
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 13
Reflective task 1.3
1 What aspects of Mimi’s teaching or preparation may have led to an unsuccessful
lesson?
2 What would you suggest she reflectively focus upon?
Case Study 1.3 Nigel the physical education trainee
Nigel was an athletic, energetic and enthusiastic trainee. He was teaching Year 8
how to throw the shot. Before the lesson he laid out markers for the students to use as
launching points and he impaled javelins at either end of the throwing area, and knotted
a tape from one to the other, to denote the height the shot should reach. His learning
objectives were shared with the class through a bulleted list on a portable whiteboard.
At the start of the lesson he asked the students about the success criteria for throwing
the shot, ensuring safety and helping a peer improve their performance. He had the
students working in pairs, alternately operating as athlete and coach. They took it in
turns to practise a throw and make peer observations to suggest to each other how
their performance was good and also how it could be enhanced. Their initial throws
were carried out on their knees to ensure they understood the importance of ‘clean
palm’, ‘dirty neck’, ‘high elbow’ and ‘none putting arm as guide for direction of throw’
before they could progress to a full standing throw. At the end of the hour lesson each
student had improved in their techniques in putting the shot.
Reflective task 1.4
1 What strengths did this trainee clearly show?
2 What should Nigel focus on to improve his lesson?
Deepening your reflection so that it becomes more
meaningful
Reflection-on-action
This is probably the most straightforward kind of reflection. It involves considering
an experience and thinking about how to improve it next time. On a long car
journey, for example, you may have opted for the most direct route, but it takes
twice as long as the more circuitous motorway. Reflection-on-action will inform
14 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
the route you take next time. If you wish for a shorter time in the car themotorway
is better. However, if the cost of fuel is paramount the direct route may be more
desirable. Similarly with teaching, after reflecting on an experience with a class
you may make decisions about how to change things next time. This is Fiona’s
reflection after teaching her third lesson:
“ At the end of the lesson I felt like I could write an entire essay just on what
I had learnt from that hour! These are some of the most salient points:
1 Never, ever give out equipment until you want them to do something
with it! Especially true for a lower ability set, the cups I gave out for
the activity were too much of a distraction!
2 Always double check who in your class will struggle with which tasks. I
gave out role play cards and was very embarrassed to learn I had given
a complicated role to a pupil who could not read! I was also upset
to realize I had asked the newest member of the class to hand out
the books; this pupil was also Polish and did not speak much English.
These were particularly disappointing things to do as I had spent lots
of time researching the needs of my classes in extensive detail, but I
now know that class so much better.
3 I need to work on the tone and pitch of my voice. While the
teacher fed back that I varied my voice well, it did become high
and squeaky sometimes and my nerves probably came across to the
pupils.
4 Always wait for silence. I insisted on it several times and tried my best
to wait for silence but I am aware I did not always wait for absolute
silence before progressing. In hindsight, this was probably because I
was aware of the timing of the lesson and that it had taken longer than
I anticipated getting the initial part of the lesson started. I appreciate
that it is an important part of my classroom management to follow
through with what I say so I will definitely be practising that from my
first lesson back after half term.
5 Praise. Iwas pleasedwith my questioning technique and felt as though
the pupils were confident in answering my questions; however I did
not thank them for their answers nor praise them when they were
correct. Again, I am sure this was because of my awareness of timing
and I will ensure from now on that I include the word PRAISE on my
lesson plan so that I am reminded when I look at it to use some more
‘well dones’.
(Fiona, one-year PGCE trainee, three lessons after start of
teaching) ”
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 15
Reflective task 1.5
Having read Fiona’s reflections on her lesson, can you identify where she needs to focus
next?
The following is a key reflection from Greta, again threeweeks into her teaching
practice on a one-year PGCE course:
“ I recently read that pupils only spend 12% of their time in lessons (Capel
et al. 2009) which surprised me and made me realize how important it is
to make use of every moment in a lesson to maximize learning. Teacher
assessment of learning is crucial and pupils are always being reminded of
their target grades, how to improve and are pushed to achieve their highest
potential. I have observed lots of lessons where teachers use formative
assessment to monitor the progress of their class. One strategy I liked was
the use of mini-whiteboards on which pupils write down their answers and
hold them up – which I intend to use in some of my lessons.
(Greta, four weeks into her PGCE teaching experience) ”
Reflective task 1.6
1 What else are you likely to learn by watching other teachers?
2 How is the reflection of their actions different to reflection on your own actions?
These are Mark’s reflections after watching two different teachers, one in English
and the other in science:
“ A teacher in English has shown me how to structure an instruction, repeat
it and then explain it in another way. This is so he can use a whole ‘catch
all’ approach to get his class going on what to do next. Another member
of staff always uses pupil language to describe tasks to be done like ‘add a
splash of iodine to the food mixture’ or ‘this is a mortar and pestle – also
known as a grinder’.
(Mark, one-year PGCE science, second week in classroom) ”
16 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Reflective task 1.7
1 What do you think are the benefits of watching other more experienced teachers
teach at the beginning of your practice?
2 Can you identify which features of teaching Mark is most focused on early in his
development?
3 How do you anticipate these might change as he becomes more experienced?
Reflection-in-action
This type of reflection is a little more sophisticated and will require more on-thespot
responsive thinking. On a car journey the road ahead is blocked because of an
accident, but you have to reach your destination in five minutes’ time. You must
make an in-the-moment decision about whether to wait or try an alternative road.
You need experience of the local road network to make an informed judgment.
Similarly, in the classroom, some experience is needed to flexibly review an inthe-
moment happening to decide if a different course of action is appropriate.
This is Saheed’s view of reflection-in-action:
“ As someone who was expecting to find reflection difficult, I am pleasantly
surprised by how much I am learning from it. I am now gaining in confidence
about reflecting-in-action; something I had to do when my starter
activity was going wrong and I needed to re-issue instructions to the class.
Reflection-on-action, of which I have done a great deal, has helped me
analyse the lessons as I taught them. This made me think about them
all the way through. I am now beginning to understand why becoming a
reflective practitioner will be so useful as a teacher, I will constantly be
evolving in my teaching style and learning from every single lesson I teach.
(Saheed, one-year PGCE, third week in placement) ”
Reflective task 1.8
1 To what extent is reflection serving to help you currently?
2 How do you see it supporting your professional development in the future?
3 Can all the features in Shulman’s model be addressed through reflection-in-action?
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 17
Reflecting-before-action
Using reflection to inform planning is a useful strategy for considering the
alternative ways you could prepare and teach a lesson, just as preparing for a
long car journey, preparatory information can be provided by looking at a map,
exploring alternative routes via the internet, asking other drivers which way they
would go, or speaking to advisors from an automobile association. However, the
planning and decision making about when to fill up with fuel, when and where
to stop for a break and how much food and drink you should carry is ultimately
your decision as the driver of the car. Just like the planning for a lesson, you
can invest more or less time in the preparation of a car journey. Taking time to
consider possible outcomes based on certain actions can be time well spent. A
long car journey that is undertaken during severe weather conditions will require
more in-depth thought to thoroughly prepare for anticipated eventualities.
Similarly dealing with a challenging class can feel like entering a storm, and
needs careful thinking through. Preparation requires looking back on experiences
to project forward and plan as carefully as possible. Consider this comment
from Pritpal:
“ Since I began observing in an active school many things have changed in my
understanding, chiefly among which is that I now have an understanding
of what goes on in a school on a day-to-day basis. Previously, aside from
the teaching and monitoring, the life and work of a teacher was a mystery
to me. I had no idea what they did between classes and how much prep
they did before a lesson, thinking that many would just make it up on the
fly. Some do, but that’s because they have been teaching a while. You sing
the songs for long enough you can forget the song sheet. It would also
seem that the professional role seems to step beyond that of instructor. A
teacher seems to be simultaneously an instructor, guide, carer, confidante
and informer all in one.
(Pritpal, PGCE trainee, three weeks into his first placement) ”
Reflective task 1.9
1 How does Pritpal apply reflection-on-action?
2 Which features of Shulman’s model of development do you think are more likely to
be developed by reflection-on-action?
3 How does Pritpal’s view connect with other theorists about reflection?
18 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
This is Paul’s reflective view of teaching after a few weeks in school:
“ I have come to realize during my brief time teaching that shouting and
aggressive language is something that is definitely required but should be
used sparingly. Punishments and disciplining are not required to be at high
decibels and with a frown. For some pupils the drama, commotion and
attention are exactly the response that they hoped to provoke. For others
such a response may be so upsetting that they are unable to concentrate
on their work through embarrassment, anger or disappointment. ” He later adds:
“ The fact remains that there is no need to have a negative emotional
response to a child’s behaviour. Although it is difficult not to feel aggravated
by insolent behaviour, keeping calm is the exact same self-control you
as a teacher expect from your pupils when asking for silence and they
want to chat. It is for this reason that disciplining children through a fair
and consistent behaviour policy, in a calm and pleasant manner, without
causing a scene or drawing whole-class attention to the pupil concerned, is
the most effective method to establish mutual respect from all involved.
(Paul, one-year PGCE, after two weeks in placement) ”
Reflective task 1.10
1 What kinds of reflection is Paul bringing to bear here?
2 How far can you judge which features of the Shulman model he is addressing?
Summary
This chapter has introduced some key ideas about reflection that are taken further
in many subsequent chapters. The central thread of discussion here is about
how reflection can inform the development of practice. Well-known theorists
and their associated ideas have been introduced. Dewey’s (1910) view of routine
actions and reflective actions has been considered and contrasted with Sch¨on’s
view (1983) of reflection as a continuous process supporting development of
professional practice. His view of reflection-in-action (while doing something)
and reflection-on-action (after doing something) are applied to beginning teachers’
situations. Shulman’s (1987) distinct multi-faceted perspective on the nature of
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 19
teacher development is utilized to help learning teachers to focus their attention
in different directions and consider where progression might be best steered.
Pollard (2002) builds on the views of these eminent scholars and considers further
the more dynamic nature of reflection-in-action, to explore how the dilemmas
and challenges beginning teachers face influence effectiveness in the classroom.
Readers have been invited to reflect on the differing nature of the key theorists
and their views’ of reflection.
Conclusion
As you progress through other chapters in this book, or dip into them, you will find
frequent references to ‘pedagogic’, ‘subject’ and ‘curriculum’ knowledge and to ‘personal
constructs’ or ‘teacher identity’. This chapter serves as an introduction to these concepts
so that as they recur in your reflections you will feel increasingly comfortable with them.
Key learning points
There is a range of views about reflection.
Reflection can clearly inform and support development of practice.
Reflection-on-practice can include consideration of established routines and practices
and how these might be improved or changed as needs demand.
Reflection-in-practice can be conceived as action research.
Reflection can arise before practice.
Different perspectives of reflection can be woven together to suggest how the
pedagogic craft of praxis (the application of theory to inform practice) of beginning
teachers can be supported so that their actions are informed through reflective
reasoning.
It is vital to understand that reflection is a strategy for learning about teaching.
It is important to appreciate how reflection can focus on different aspects of teacher
development.
Beginning teachers need to consider how prominent views of reflection (Dewey,
Sch¨on, Shulman and Pollard) can illuminate different aspects of their developing
practice.
1
What can reflective
practice mean for
you . . . and why should
you engage in it?
DebraMcGregor
Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not
to stop questioning.
Albert Einstein
There can be few better ways of elevating your life than by thinking about, and
reflecting upon, how your development as a teacher will improve the education of
the children and young people whose lives you will touch. Reflectively pondering
and questioning what you do can improve your achievements in life. This chapter
focuses on describing why you should reflect as a developing teacher and how
you can reflectively consider and question different aspects of your teaching to
develop into a confident and competent educator.
Reflection often begins when you pause to ‘think back’ after something unexpected
or out of the ordinary has happened. You re-play the happenings, incident
or event in your head, and, in thinking about it more, it begins to change from
a sequence of chronological events into a series of questioning thoughts such as
‘What happened?’, ‘When?’ and ‘How?’ These initial thoughts can be purposeless
and just idle musings. They become more purposeful and constructive when
thinking is directed to consider questions such as: ‘Why did it happen that way?’
and ‘How could I have behaved or done things differently?’ Questions such as:
‘Would action x have been better than action y at the beginning of the lesson?’
or ‘How could I have responded differently to the disruptive boy at the end of the
lesson?’ lead to thoughts about how to improve specific situations. Reflecting determindly
to improve something requires effort and sustained, focused thinking
centred on a particular issue or concern you might have about your development
as a teacher.
2 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Providing clear instructions or explaining ideas to others may be a talent you
already possess. It may also come naturally to you to be gently supportive and
encouraging of your learners. You may already have a talent for steering a learner
to achieve new understanding or develop a previously unmastered skill. However,
if you are to become a consistently effective teacher, developing engaging lessons
on a daily basis and commanding the attention of all around you, you will need
to develop a clear understanding about what you do that works well. You also
need to appreciate that some things you might consider doing are unlikely to
be successful, or deter you from making good professional progress. Thoughtful
reflection can help you to recognize more swiftly what is effective practice and
what are the key characteristics of a successful teacher.
When starting out on a teaching experience or practice, you may feel that there
are some skills you already have, but recognize that others need development.
You may, for example, need to think about how to address a group, or how far to
go in your explanation of fractions, or even what to say to learners to help them
see how they are progressing. Your academic and professional learning around
issues such as these will be aided by your previous experiences, a rapid review of
learners’ progress during the lesson and focused contemplation after episodes of
teaching. The following quotation indicates how a beginning teacher realizes, like
many others:
“ It will be . . . difficult in the classroom to take control and deal with behavioural
problems but hopefully I will learn from any mistakes I may make
in the first instances and also learn from other qualified teachers as to how
best to control bad behaviour.
(Patricia, one-year PGCE student, at beginning of course) ” Behaviour management is almost always a concern for the beginning teacher.
Others include:
knowing how to talk at an appropriate level in class;
ensuring that lessons are both successful and enjoyable;
adhering to government and accreditation expectations;
being liked by learners!
To succeed in all these aspects as well as many others (for example, formative
assessment, marking books, creating succinct plenaries) requires careful reflection
about the process, delivery and development of your teaching. To teach
successfully, with learners who appear to be increasingly challenging, requires
the nurturing, adaptation and refinement of a range of academic understandings
and a plethora of more practical professional skills.
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 3
This extract from Martyn’s reflections early in his teaching practice indicates
how there are many things to reflect upon when learning how to teach:
“ One worry I had was that they wouldn’t know the answers to my questions
and I would be stood at the front in a silent room! However, they were very
responsive and it made the experience much more enjoyable . . . . . after
the lesson . . . . my mentor pointed out that I was not to lower my voice
when speaking to an individual as it prevents the rest of the class from
hearing the answer. I also sometimes felt myself stumbling when talking
to the whole class . . . . . . so I need to be clearer in my explanations. The
second starter [beginning lesson activity] was with the same group later
on in the day and I felt much more confident about delivering it after their
earlier response. The pupils once again responded well, enjoyed it and they
even applauded me once I had finished! I was so engrossed in ensuring
my presentation was correctly set up that I forgot to stand at the front of
the classroom. I feel I would have gained more authority if I had done this
from the start of the lesson. The pupils became quite excitable and started
shouting out the answers during the activity and although I asked them to
put up their hands, some continued to shout their suggestions. From this
experience, I know that I need to use management strategies to control the
class, for example, not responding positively to those who were shouting
out.
(Martyn, one-year maths PGCE, early in the course) ” Martyn’s reflections indicate that he has a lot to think about, all at once! It is of
course not possible to master all teaching skills at the same time, and knowing
exactly what to focus on can be tricky. This chapter introduces different views
of reflection that are important for beginning teachers and helps you to consider
what the focus of reflection might be, and how reflection at different points can
be useful. At its simplest, reflection is consciously ‘looking back’ at your actions
and being able to make some kind of evaluation of whether your teaching was
successful or not. More complex, analytical and critical reflection is that which not
only recognizes what you have done, but also how a particular course of action
(or series of actions) shaped outcomes for your learners.Most beginning teachers,
like Martyn above, are able to describe what has happened in their classroom.
What they find much more challenging is a level of critical reflection that enables
them to identify and explain:
what contributed to effective learning;
what was detrimental to effective learning;
what they could do to improve learning.
4 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Many trainees find thinking about how to improve their practice quite a trial,
because, in their early observations it is not easy to recognize what effective
teachers do to control their class and make learning an engaging and enjoyable
experience. It is a little like watching someone drive when you are first learning;
should you observe the gear change, the clutch control or the brake pedal
movement? It all looks easy, but when you try to do it there is so much to think
about all at once. So it is with teaching; teasing out what is essential is not always
obvious.
The nature of the reflective teacher
Most views of reflection emanate from the work of American philosopher, John
Dewey (1910), who is often credited with being the originator of reflective practice.
Being reflective requires active consideration about actions and their consequences.
As a beginning teacher you might think that you must punish children
who talk when you are giving out instructions. However, if you do not
contemplate the implications of keeping the whole class in over a break because
the interruption involved only one loud student, you will not learn from
your experience quickly. Dewey (1910) recognized that the ‘thinking teacher’ requires
three important attributes to be reflective; ‘open-mindedness’ to new ideas
and thoughts; ‘wholeheartedness’ to seek out fresh approaches and fully engage
with them; and ‘responsibility’ to be aware of the consequences of one’s own
actions. So, in his view, reflections to help develop these characteristics are essential
to becoming a successful teacher. Patrick demonstrates the first of these
characteristics:
“ By keeping an open mind on a given situation, I allow myself to view a
problem from more than one angle . . . . . . I am prepared to try out new
ideas if I believe them to be valid and am more than willing to accept
feedback on the impact my approach has on an audience whether it be
good or bad.
(Patrick, one-year PGCE student, at beginning of course) ” Beginning teachers often show a desire to be ‘open minded’ and are full of
enthusiasm to try out new ideas. However early in their training they need to be
open to suggestions about how to master the basics of teaching. From there they
can move on to develop successful new approaches. This requires researching
new materials or resources, discussing ideas with more experienced professionals
and watching other expert teachers in action, observing what they do that is
successful.
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 5
The ‘thinking teacher’ requires
three important attributes to
be reflective:
‘open-mindedness’ to new
ideas and thoughts, ‘whole
heartedness’ and
‘responsibility’.
How can you ensure that activities are exciting,
or that your freshly adapted resources are a triumph?
This requires thinking beforehand about how best to
organize their use and, afterwards, about how well
they worked from both your learners’ and your own
point of view. This is Dewey’s ‘whole-heartedness’.
To be a thinking teacher requires wholehearted
immersion in the business of education. You will be
constantly seeking out techniques and materials that will appeal to your learners,
and thinking about tasks that will engage and motivate them. This exemplifies
an attentive and conscientious approach to preparing to educate. The third of
Dewey’s characteristics, responsibility, demands reflection on experience. Clara,
below, is taking responsibility for what happened in her classroom:
“ In the third week of my placement I felt confident enough to lead the
whole class in a starter activity I had designed and constructed. I gave out
instructions to the class and they started the activity. I was feeling very
nervous about the opinion of my mentor. Whilst I was not being formally
observed, I felt it important to set a good impression as he was the head
of department. After about two minutes I realized that both halves of the
class had been given the same set of equipment, and they should have
been comparing each others’ findings! How naive of me not to check the
equipment before giving it to the pupils! Luckily, the activity still worked
well and even more luckily, the head of department had not realized there
was ever a problem. I will now be triple checking everything before it goes
into the pupils’ hands!
(Clara, one-year science PGCE student, three weeks into first teaching
placement) ”
Why reflect?
Extending Dewey’s view of the thoughtful teacher is about considering the consequences
of one’s actions. Reflection is an important tool in helping you to do this,
as it enables you to take a critical look back at what you did. Dewey identified two
categories of teacher behaviour:
routine action
reflective action
To the untrained eye, schools can look as if they run like clockwork. This is not
chance, but based on the accumulative effect of routine actions, for example, the
way learners respond to the teacher during registration when their names are
6 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
called out, the way they are expected to line up outside a classroom door, or to
respond to question/answer sessions in class. As a beginning teacher you need to
‘fit in’ with existing routines and develop some of your own, such as the fixed stare
indicating ‘watch what you are doing!’ or standing at the front of the class with
arms folded conveying ‘I am waiting for silence’ or exaggerating starting a timer
indicates ‘I am now timing to see how long it takes you to be quiet and will waste
that much of your time at the end of the lesson’. You may well pick these up from
observing experienced teachers and reflecting on the triumphant consequences of
their actions and consciously plan to adopt their routines. Like driving a car, once
these routines are established, they require little conscious thought. Dewey (1910)
contrasts these kinds of ‘routine action’ (doing what is guided by factors such as
tradition, habit, authority and institutional expectations) with ‘reflective action’
(doing made up of changed actions informed by self-appraisal). As a beginning
teacher you cannot take routine action for granted.
Professional artistry is the
application of ‘intelligent
action’, experimenting in the
way you respond to situations
through ‘reflection-in-action’
and ‘reflection-on-action’.
Even apparently simple tasks can go wrong unless
you think through what they mean and why they exist.
For you, ‘routine action’ will develop only from ‘reflective
action’ as you seek constantly to improve ways of
working.
Developing Dewey’s ideas further, Sch¨on (1983,
1987) highlights how professionals often face situations
that are unique, but apply their knowledge and previous experiences to
inform how they act. He defines this active, somewhat experimental process as
professional artistry. He suggests that practitioners who respond or act in such a
professional, competent way in uncertain situations are ‘knowing-in-action’ (1987:
25) and can reveal different sorts of knowledge that emerge through their ‘intelligent
action’ (1987: 25). In your teaching practice, for example, you might have
given the learners a writing task, but while you are setting up the technology to
use a video clip to stimulate discussion, you notice the increase in quiet whispering.
You know that if the noise reaches a certain level the discussion will not
go well. To maintain quiet control of the group you could do with extending
the task or re-engaging the quick learners in a subsequent activity. Anticipating
this need, being prepared for it and responding to it is great teaching artistry.
Another time, towards the end of the lesson, the tasks have been completed and
there are still 10 minutes before the bell. Professional artistry would facilitate
the engagement of the learners to reflect on the lesson, summarize what they
have learned; you as the teacher pull it all together, connect the outcomes to the
learning objectives and success criteria, and still have them thinking about what
they have learned as they leave the room. So where does this ‘professional artistry’
come from?
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 7
Dewey suggested that professionals might experiment in the way they respond
to situations by using both ‘reflection-in-action’ and ‘reflection-on-action’. The
former involves thinking about action while actually doing it, and may result in
change during the teaching process. Sch¨on (1983) argues that this could be a
form of action research (discussed further in Chapter 14), changing or adapting
your practice to deal with a particular demand or situation. He indicates that this
kind of practice is freed from established theory and able to inform the personal
theory that you might construct from your experience. As a beginning teacher
you will think about what you are doing during the lesson, and think back to what
happened after the lesson. However you will also benefit from contemplating
what could happen in lessons and how you will prepare for learning before
delivering a lesson. This we could call reflection-before-action. Pollard (2008)
sees reflection that informs the development of teaching as a cyclical process that
should be scaffolded by various frameworks (discussed in Chapter 9) andmediated
through collaboration and discussion with colleagues. He extends these ideas by
emphasizing the rigorous nature of reflective teaching, moving beyond ‘common
sense’ to gather evidence, research literature and obtain critiques from colleagues.
The monitoring, evaluating and revising of one’s own practice should therefore
arise through evidence-based enquiry, a premise that informs the structure of
many trainee development programmes. Seven key characteristics of reflective
practice (adapted from Pollard 2008: 14) include:
1 having an active focus on the aims and consequences of your teaching;
2 taking a cyclical approach to regularly monitoring, evaluating and revisiting
your practice;
3 using evidence to make judgments about success and how to
progress;
4 retaining open-mindedness, responsibility and wholeheartedness;
5 basing developing pedagogy on insights from research as well as judgments
from evaluating own practice;
6 engaging with colleagues through collaboration and dialogue to improve
professional learning and personal fulfillment;
7 redeveloping practice by creatively integrating external frameworks and
models of practice.
The aim of reflective practice is thus to support a shift from routine actions
rooted in commonsense thinking to reflective action emerging from professional
thinking (Pollard 2008: 26) drawing from external evidence-based sources. All
seven key points are addressed throughout the chapters in this book.
8 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Reflective task 1.1
A number of different views have been briefly outlined above. Think about any recent
experience you have had teaching or instructing someone to do something new (helping
them to learn a new sporting skill or using a different technique on a computer):
1 Did you think through how to help before doing anything, or pause mid-action,
or mull over later how you were explaining, demonstrating or encouraging the
learner?
2 Could you align this contemplation to reflection-before-action; reflection-inaction;
reflection-on-action?
3 If you were to do this again would you do it the same or differently next time?
How? Why?
What should you be reflective about?
There are many different things to consider and think about when you are developing
as a teacher. Figure 1.1 suggests how many different facets of a teacher’s
work can shape and influence their development. This model (developed from
Shulman’s 1987 and 1998 work and Higgins and Leat 2001) indicates the various
dimensions that beginning teachers should pay attention to. It could be very useful
to consider each of these features as part of the toolkit that arms you with helpful
tactics, strategies, frameworks and general guidance about what to pay attention
to on your reflective journey to becoming an effective teacher. You could view
them as key components of the legend on the road map to becoming a qualified
teacher.
Reflecting on subject knowledge
This is a key prerequisite for teaching. You need to know and understand the
subject content that you are going to teach. If you do not ‘know your stuff’ you
will not have a clear idea about what your students should learn. Before teaching
any lesson, it is important that you understand the substantive or important
subject knowledge in your area of curriculum. You need to know the content as
well as how it is constructed. For example, in science there are three main subject
areas: biology, chemistry and physics, but there is also an underpinning view that
‘how science works’ (the nature and historical development in science) should be
nurtured through the three different disciplines. In MFL you need to be able to
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 9
‘Subject’ knowledge
Substantive subject knowledge
understanding key facts and concepts of the
subject; appreciating the nature of the subject:
‘knowing what’
Syntactic subject knowledge
understanding the way subject matter is
structured and developed: ‘knowing how’
‘Curriculum’ knowledge
Key skills associated with subject matter
understanding how and when literacy, numeracy,
thinking skills, collaboration, creativity, criticality
and problem solving approaches are appropriate
Additional Curricular frameworks influence
Knowing where the learning is situated within the
national curriculum, accreditation specifications
and schemes of work
‘Pedagogic’ knowledge
Practical knowledge
based on experience, appreciating how to
manage the classroom, question, apply
assessment techniques, etc.
Beliefs about teaching
intuitive, experiential, cultural influences
on viewpoints
Knowledge of learners
appreciating influences of child development,
emotions, skill needs, diagnosed difficulties, etc.
Acknowledgement of educational values
Knowledge of learning settings
knowing how and what the organization values;
what traditions, cultures, routines, etc. are prized
Knowledge of values
appreciating morals, religious practices,
comprehending behavioural expectations,
quality learning, etc.
Personal constructs
and identity
knowing yourself,
understanding own
capabilities, knowing
what kind of image
you wish to convey
to others
Pedagogic enactment in the
classroom
Figure 1.1 Simple schematic adaptation of Shulman’s model of teacher development
Source: Shulman 1987, 1998; Higgins and Leat 2001; McGregor 2007
understand, and communicate accurately in, the target language, but you must
also understand how the language works (what the grammatical patterns are) in
order to prepare your pupils to become independent learners.
Thus subject knowledge is about knowing the key facts and appreciating and
understanding how they are connected together; this could be summarized as
‘knowing what’. As a developing educator you should also recognize how the
subject matter should be organized, for example if you are a PE teacher you will
recognize that you cannot teach children how to play rugby or netball if they have
not yet learned the basic skills of passing the ball. There is a need to pay attention
to, and develop competency in, one area before progressing to the next. This is
an example of syntactic subject knowledge, understanding the way that subject
matter can be organized and developed. This could be referred to as ‘knowing
how’. Before you begin teaching it is important that you reflect on the extent to
which your understanding of ‘knowing what’ and ‘knowing how’ is appropriate.
Most teacher preparation courses provide a knowledge and skills audit, so that
would-be trainees can reflect on ‘what do I know currently?’ and ‘what do I need
to know before I start?’
10 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Curriculum knowledge
As well as acquiring subject knowledge, learners also develop other skills and understanding
related to the subject. It is important for you to see how, for example,
literacy, numeracy, thinking skills, collaborative skills, creativity, criticality and
problem-solving approaches fit into subject teaching. Skills and knowledge are
integral to any subject area. In history, for example, students might be required
to analyse key factors influencing the development of World War Two; or they
might need to synthesize arguments about the contrasting nature of Buddhism
and Judaism in religious education (RE). In art they may need to generate alternative
presentations of a slogan, or abstract interpretations of an object. Such
skills are not confined to older learners; in mathematics even young children
learn to develop different ways of solving a problem, or in English they might
need to report the same event from two contrasting viewpoints. It is important
to recognize how skills may be key to the learning of substantive or syntactic
subject knowledge. This could be thought of as ‘knowing-what-else’. Curriculum
knowledge is also about knowing how and where the subject fits in to the whole
curriculum and how it is assessed and accredited at different stages of education.
Pedagogic knowledge
Pedagogic knowledge, or knowing how to teach, is multi-faceted:
Practical teaching knowledge is used to ensure effective learning through the
application of practical strategies that include classroom and behaviour management,
organization, questioning techniques and formative assessment
techniques.
Beliefs about teaching (intuitive and experiential understandings of what
works) may also influence your thinking and practice. Perhaps you think
that mixed ability is good when a lesson is focused on skill development,
such as team building in PE, and setting is appropriate to have all students
learning together in a high ability MFL class.
Understanding of learners and their unique capabilities (appreciating influences
of child development, emotions, skill needs, diagnosed difficulties,
talents or gifts) may influence how you design the learning tasks or organize
the classroom.
This could be viewed as ‘knowing what works’.
Acknowledgement of educational values
Influence of learning settings can shape theway you teach. The school culture
that includes the routines, practices and performances that have become an
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 11
automatic and accepted way of working might constrain or develop your
practice. Sixty-minute lessons, or regular field trips, or fixed commentary
boxes on reports, or the ICT network support can shape how you perform as
a professional.
Acknowledgement of an individual’s values (individual standards, morals,
religious practices, home cultures) can influence how and what things happen.
A headteacher’s view of handwriting or wall displays, or the fact that
you are working in a religious school, can influence what you say and how
you conduct your lessons.
These could be described as ‘knowing what else matters’.
Personal constructs and identity
It is important for you to understand that how you view yourself as a teacher
(and a person) will have a bearing on the way you perform in the classroom. How
you communicate with others (authoritatively or submissively, enthusiastically
or very matter-of-fact) can convey your beliefs and how you think you should
or could act in any professional situation. Equally you need to be aware of how
you wish to be portrayed to your learners, colleagues and peers. This is discussed
much further in Chapters 3 and 5 in particular.
Pedagogic enactment
This is about how you teach. The level of confidence that you have when you first
enact your role as a teacher will be greatly influenced by:
how well you are mentally prepared;
how carefully you have thought about what you will have the students do
and what you will say;
how you will question your learners.
Your performance or enactment as a teacher will express your understandings
(about your subject, its nature and sequence) and beliefs (about how your students
learn) and the influences of the institution (daily routines, weekly practices and
integral values). All these factors (and more) will impact on you as a teacher
and how you present yourself. As you develop professionally and you recognize
something is not working too well, you may find it useful to take each of the
aspects described above and reflect on them in turn, identifying where you need
to focus further to facilitate your development.
With the different facets of becoming a teacher in mind (Shulman’s model,
Figure 1.1) read Case Studies 1.1 to 1.3 and consider the questions that follow.
12 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Case Study 1.1 Clive the mathematician
Clive is a quietly competent mathematician teaching a group of Year 9 students. In
attempting to teach about angles and how to measure them, he had produced some
brilliant animations (on an interactive whiteboard) of swirling right-angled objects,
and engaging activities where the students measured the angles of objects around the
classroom. His demeanour, however, was somewhat timid and he allowed the students
to choose where they sat and who they (loudly) conversed with. He asked probing
questions and his presentation of ideas about how angles could be measured and
calculated was crystal clear. This trainee illustrated strengths in his understanding of
mathematics as a subject and could communicate to willing listeners how to describe
and measure different kinds of angles. The tasks he designed for his learners were
engaging, differentiated and challenging to the more able. Yet the behaviour of his
classes could erode his confidence and perhaps even deter him from pursuing teaching.
His reflection needed to be carefully directed so that he could identify where his
strengths lay and where he needed to focus the next steps in development.
Reflective task 1.2
1 What do you think are Clive’s strengths and weaknesses?
2 What aspect of his development would you encourage him to reflect upon next?
Case Study 1.2 Mimi the scientist
Mimi is a highly qualified scientist who has previously worked in industry. She was
teaching secondary students about diet. She was knowledgeable about the key aspects
of a healthy diet and the essential contribution of vitamins and minerals to food we
eat. She had devised an interesting practical activity involving testing foods for the
nutrients they contained. She organized ‘testing’ stations around the laboratory so that
the different groups would work at various, well spaced, points around the perimeter of
the classroom. The apparatus was neatly laid out for collection by a representative from
each group to avoid collisions in the haste to grab equipment and do some science.
She provided a carefully explained set of instructions, demonstrated techniques and
requested ‘hands up’ to check all understood the method to be used. Some students did
not appear to understand exactly what to do so she also directed reflective questions at
those who appeared not to be paying careful attention with a request to ‘repeat what
you have to do in the experiment’. She had a pre-prepared worksheet upon which the
students could quickly record their results and draw their conclusions. Despite all these
props for the practical, the lesson was not successful.
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 13
Reflective task 1.3
1 What aspects of Mimi’s teaching or preparation may have led to an unsuccessful
lesson?
2 What would you suggest she reflectively focus upon?
Case Study 1.3 Nigel the physical education trainee
Nigel was an athletic, energetic and enthusiastic trainee. He was teaching Year 8
how to throw the shot. Before the lesson he laid out markers for the students to use as
launching points and he impaled javelins at either end of the throwing area, and knotted
a tape from one to the other, to denote the height the shot should reach. His learning
objectives were shared with the class through a bulleted list on a portable whiteboard.
At the start of the lesson he asked the students about the success criteria for throwing
the shot, ensuring safety and helping a peer improve their performance. He had the
students working in pairs, alternately operating as athlete and coach. They took it in
turns to practise a throw and make peer observations to suggest to each other how
their performance was good and also how it could be enhanced. Their initial throws
were carried out on their knees to ensure they understood the importance of ‘clean
palm’, ‘dirty neck’, ‘high elbow’ and ‘none putting arm as guide for direction of throw’
before they could progress to a full standing throw. At the end of the hour lesson each
student had improved in their techniques in putting the shot.
Reflective task 1.4
1 What strengths did this trainee clearly show?
2 What should Nigel focus on to improve his lesson?
Deepening your reflection so that it becomes more
meaningful
Reflection-on-action
This is probably the most straightforward kind of reflection. It involves considering
an experience and thinking about how to improve it next time. On a long car
journey, for example, you may have opted for the most direct route, but it takes
twice as long as the more circuitous motorway. Reflection-on-action will inform
14 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
the route you take next time. If you wish for a shorter time in the car themotorway
is better. However, if the cost of fuel is paramount the direct route may be more
desirable. Similarly with teaching, after reflecting on an experience with a class
you may make decisions about how to change things next time. This is Fiona’s
reflection after teaching her third lesson:
“ At the end of the lesson I felt like I could write an entire essay just on what
I had learnt from that hour! These are some of the most salient points:
1 Never, ever give out equipment until you want them to do something
with it! Especially true for a lower ability set, the cups I gave out for
the activity were too much of a distraction!
2 Always double check who in your class will struggle with which tasks. I
gave out role play cards and was very embarrassed to learn I had given
a complicated role to a pupil who could not read! I was also upset
to realize I had asked the newest member of the class to hand out
the books; this pupil was also Polish and did not speak much English.
These were particularly disappointing things to do as I had spent lots
of time researching the needs of my classes in extensive detail, but I
now know that class so much better.
3 I need to work on the tone and pitch of my voice. While the
teacher fed back that I varied my voice well, it did become high
and squeaky sometimes and my nerves probably came across to the
pupils.
4 Always wait for silence. I insisted on it several times and tried my best
to wait for silence but I am aware I did not always wait for absolute
silence before progressing. In hindsight, this was probably because I
was aware of the timing of the lesson and that it had taken longer than
I anticipated getting the initial part of the lesson started. I appreciate
that it is an important part of my classroom management to follow
through with what I say so I will definitely be practising that from my
first lesson back after half term.
5 Praise. Iwas pleasedwith my questioning technique and felt as though
the pupils were confident in answering my questions; however I did
not thank them for their answers nor praise them when they were
correct. Again, I am sure this was because of my awareness of timing
and I will ensure from now on that I include the word PRAISE on my
lesson plan so that I am reminded when I look at it to use some more
‘well dones’.
(Fiona, one-year PGCE trainee, three lessons after start of
teaching) ”
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 15
Reflective task 1.5
Having read Fiona’s reflections on her lesson, can you identify where she needs to focus
next?
The following is a key reflection from Greta, again threeweeks into her teaching
practice on a one-year PGCE course:
“ I recently read that pupils only spend 12% of their time in lessons (Capel
et al. 2009) which surprised me and made me realize how important it is
to make use of every moment in a lesson to maximize learning. Teacher
assessment of learning is crucial and pupils are always being reminded of
their target grades, how to improve and are pushed to achieve their highest
potential. I have observed lots of lessons where teachers use formative
assessment to monitor the progress of their class. One strategy I liked was
the use of mini-whiteboards on which pupils write down their answers and
hold them up – which I intend to use in some of my lessons.
(Greta, four weeks into her PGCE teaching experience) ”
Reflective task 1.6
1 What else are you likely to learn by watching other teachers?
2 How is the reflection of their actions different to reflection on your own actions?
These are Mark’s reflections after watching two different teachers, one in English
and the other in science:
“ A teacher in English has shown me how to structure an instruction, repeat
it and then explain it in another way. This is so he can use a whole ‘catch
all’ approach to get his class going on what to do next. Another member
of staff always uses pupil language to describe tasks to be done like ‘add a
splash of iodine to the food mixture’ or ‘this is a mortar and pestle – also
known as a grinder’.
(Mark, one-year PGCE science, second week in classroom) ”
16 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Reflective task 1.7
1 What do you think are the benefits of watching other more experienced teachers
teach at the beginning of your practice?
2 Can you identify which features of teaching Mark is most focused on early in his
development?
3 How do you anticipate these might change as he becomes more experienced?
Reflection-in-action
This type of reflection is a little more sophisticated and will require more on-thespot
responsive thinking. On a car journey the road ahead is blocked because of an
accident, but you have to reach your destination in five minutes’ time. You must
make an in-the-moment decision about whether to wait or try an alternative road.
You need experience of the local road network to make an informed judgment.
Similarly, in the classroom, some experience is needed to flexibly review an inthe-
moment happening to decide if a different course of action is appropriate.
This is Saheed’s view of reflection-in-action:
“ As someone who was expecting to find reflection difficult, I am pleasantly
surprised by how much I am learning from it. I am now gaining in confidence
about reflecting-in-action; something I had to do when my starter
activity was going wrong and I needed to re-issue instructions to the class.
Reflection-on-action, of which I have done a great deal, has helped me
analyse the lessons as I taught them. This made me think about them
all the way through. I am now beginning to understand why becoming a
reflective practitioner will be so useful as a teacher, I will constantly be
evolving in my teaching style and learning from every single lesson I teach.
(Saheed, one-year PGCE, third week in placement) ”
Reflective task 1.8
1 To what extent is reflection serving to help you currently?
2 How do you see it supporting your professional development in the future?
3 Can all the features in Shulman’s model be addressed through reflection-in-action?
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 17
Reflecting-before-action
Using reflection to inform planning is a useful strategy for considering the
alternative ways you could prepare and teach a lesson, just as preparing for a
long car journey, preparatory information can be provided by looking at a map,
exploring alternative routes via the internet, asking other drivers which way they
would go, or speaking to advisors from an automobile association. However, the
planning and decision making about when to fill up with fuel, when and where
to stop for a break and how much food and drink you should carry is ultimately
your decision as the driver of the car. Just like the planning for a lesson, you
can invest more or less time in the preparation of a car journey. Taking time to
consider possible outcomes based on certain actions can be time well spent. A
long car journey that is undertaken during severe weather conditions will require
more in-depth thought to thoroughly prepare for anticipated eventualities.
Similarly dealing with a challenging class can feel like entering a storm, and
needs careful thinking through. Preparation requires looking back on experiences
to project forward and plan as carefully as possible. Consider this comment
from Pritpal:
“ Since I began observing in an active school many things have changed in my
understanding, chiefly among which is that I now have an understanding
of what goes on in a school on a day-to-day basis. Previously, aside from
the teaching and monitoring, the life and work of a teacher was a mystery
to me. I had no idea what they did between classes and how much prep
they did before a lesson, thinking that many would just make it up on the
fly. Some do, but that’s because they have been teaching a while. You sing
the songs for long enough you can forget the song sheet. It would also
seem that the professional role seems to step beyond that of instructor. A
teacher seems to be simultaneously an instructor, guide, carer, confidante
and informer all in one.
(Pritpal, PGCE trainee, three weeks into his first placement) ”
Reflective task 1.9
1 How does Pritpal apply reflection-on-action?
2 Which features of Shulman’s model of development do you think are more likely to
be developed by reflection-on-action?
3 How does Pritpal’s view connect with other theorists about reflection?
18 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
This is Paul’s reflective view of teaching after a few weeks in school:
“ I have come to realize during my brief time teaching that shouting and
aggressive language is something that is definitely required but should be
used sparingly. Punishments and disciplining are not required to be at high
decibels and with a frown. For some pupils the drama, commotion and
attention are exactly the response that they hoped to provoke. For others
such a response may be so upsetting that they are unable to concentrate
on their work through embarrassment, anger or disappointment. ” He later adds:
“ The fact remains that there is no need to have a negative emotional
response to a child’s behaviour. Although it is difficult not to feel aggravated
by insolent behaviour, keeping calm is the exact same self-control you
as a teacher expect from your pupils when asking for silence and they
want to chat. It is for this reason that disciplining children through a fair
and consistent behaviour policy, in a calm and pleasant manner, without
causing a scene or drawing whole-class attention to the pupil concerned, is
the most effective method to establish mutual respect from all involved.
(Paul, one-year PGCE, after two weeks in placement) ”
Reflective task 1.10
1 What kinds of reflection is Paul bringing to bear here?
2 How far can you judge which features of the Shulman model he is addressing?
Summary
This chapter has introduced some key ideas about reflection that are taken further
in many subsequent chapters. The central thread of discussion here is about
how reflection can inform the development of practice. Well-known theorists
and their associated ideas have been introduced. Dewey’s (1910) view of routine
actions and reflective actions has been considered and contrasted with Sch¨on’s
view (1983) of reflection as a continuous process supporting development of
professional practice. His view of reflection-in-action (while doing something)
and reflection-on-action (after doing something) are applied to beginning teachers’
situations. Shulman’s (1987) distinct multi-faceted perspective on the nature of
WHAT CAN REFLECTIVE PRACTICE MEAN FOR YOU . . . AND WHY SHOULD YOU ENGAGE IN IT? 19
teacher development is utilized to help learning teachers to focus their attention
in different directions and consider where progression might be best steered.
Pollard (2002) builds on the views of these eminent scholars and considers further
the more dynamic nature of reflection-in-action, to explore how the dilemmas
and challenges beginning teachers face influence effectiveness in the classroom.
Readers have been invited to reflect on the differing nature of the key theorists
and their views’ of reflection.
Conclusion
As you progress through other chapters in this book, or dip into them, you will find
frequent references to ‘pedagogic’, ‘subject’ and ‘curriculum’ knowledge and to ‘personal
constructs’ or ‘teacher identity’. This chapter serves as an introduction to these concepts
so that as they recur in your reflections you will feel increasingly comfortable with them.
Key learning points
There is a range of views about reflection.
Reflection can clearly inform and support development of practice.
Reflection-on-practice can include consideration of established routines and practices
and how these might be improved or changed as needs demand.
Reflection-in-practice can be conceived as action research.
Reflection can arise before practice.
Different perspectives of reflection can be woven together to suggest how the
pedagogic craft of praxis (the application of theory to inform practice) of beginning
teachers can be supported so that their actions are informed through reflective
reasoning.
It is vital to understand that reflection is a strategy for learning about teaching.
It is important to appreciate how reflection can focus on different aspects of teacher
development.
Beginning teachers need to consider how prominent views of reflection (Dewey,
Sch¨on, Shulman and Pollard) can illuminate different aspects of their developing
practice.
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